Frontispiece: Signal Corps Regimental Insignia

 


ARMY HISTORICAL SERIES

 

Getting the Message Through

A Branch History of the U.S. Army
Signal Corps 

 

by
 Rebecca Robbins Raines

CMH Logo

CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY
UNITED STATES ARMY
WASHINGTON, D.C., 1996


Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Raines, Rebecca Robbins, 1952 -
......Getting the message through: a branch history of the U.S. Army Signal Corps/ by Rebecca Robbins Raines.
........... p. cm. - (Army history series)
......Includes bibliographical references and index.
......1. United States. Army-Communication systems-History
I. Title II. Series.
UG573.R35 1996

358'.24'0973-dc20

95-2393
CIP

CMH Pub 30-17-1


Army Historical Series
Jeffrey J. Clarke, General Editor

Advisory Committee
(As of October 1995)

John W. Shy
University of Michigan

Ira D. Gruber
Rice University

 

Col. Evertt L. Roper, Jr.
U.S. Army War College

 

D. Clayton James
Virginia Military Institute

 

Carlo W. D'Este
New Seabury, Mass.

 

Michael J. Kurtz
National Archives and Records Administration

 

Brig. Gen. Fletcher M. Lankin, Jr.
U.S. Military Academy

 

Carol A. Reardon
Pennsylvania State University

 

Joseph T. Glatthaar
University of Houston

 

Brig. Gen. David H. Ohle
U.S. Army Command and General Staff College

 

Rose L. Greaves
University of Kansas

 

Maj. Gen. Joe N. Ballard
U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command

 

Darlene Fuller-Farrell
Office of the Director of Information Systems for Command, Control, Communications, and Computers

 

U.S. Army Center of Military History
Brig. Gen. John W. Mountcastle, Chief of Military History

Chief Historian
Jeffrey J. Clarke
Chief, Field Programs and Historical Services Division
John T. Greenwood
Editor in Chief
John W. Elsberg

v


Contents

 

...FOREWORD
vii
...THE AUTHOR
viii
...PREFACE
ix

Chapter
Page
...I. THE BIRTH OF THE SIGNAL CORPS
3
..........Early Military Signaling
3
..........Albert J. Myer-The Father of the Signal Corps
5
..........The Civil War-Organization and Training
8
..........Signal Equipment and Methods
13
..........Wartime Operations
23
..........The Confederate Signal Corps
29
..........The Signal Corps Survives Its Baptism of Fire
30
...
...II. WEATHERING THE POSTWAR YEARS
41
..........The War Clouds Lift
41
..........The Signal Corps Becomes the Weather Service
44
..........The Stormy Years
55
..........Military Signals Weather the Storm
64
..........A Change in the Weather
69
...
...III. FROM THE TROPICS TO THE ARCTIC
81
..........Organization, Training, and Operations, 1891-1898
81
..........The War with Spain
88
..........Postwar Operations
98
..........Organization and Training, 1899-1903
103
..........New Frontiers: Alaska and the Dawn of the Electrical Age
105
..........The Roots of Change
109
...
...IV. THE SIGNAL CORPS TAKES TO THE AIR
119
..........Organization, Operations, and Training, 1904-1907
119
..........Upheavals at Home and Abroad
124
..........The Signal Corps Gets the Wright Stuff
127
..........Radio-The Wave of the Future
136
..........Organization, Operations, and Training, 1908-1914
140
..........The Signal Corps Spreads Its Wings
145
..........Bordering on War
146
...
...V. WORLD WAR I
165
..........Trouble in the Air
165
.........."Over Here": Mobilization and Training
168
........."Over There": Organization and Training
175
........."Over the Top": Signalmen in Battle
179
.........The Signal Corps Loses Its Wings
191
.........The Signal Corps Comes of Age
200
...
...VI. BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS
217
..........Organization, Operations, and Training, 1919-1928
217
..........Research and Development
229
..........Organization, Operations, and Training, 1929-1939
233
..........The Road to War
240
...
...VII. WORLD WAR II: ESTABLISHING THE CIRCUITS OF VICTORY
255
..........The Search for Manpower and Brainpower
255
..........Marshall Reshapes the War Department
260
..........The Worldwide Network
262
..........Signal Security and Intelligence
263
..........Photography: Shooting the War
267
..........Equipment: Research, Development, and Supply
273
..........The Signal Corps' Contribution
280
...
...VIII. WORLD WAR II: THEATERS OF WAR
287
..........Defending the Hemisphere, December 1941-June 1943
287
..........Signal Support for the Pacific Theater, 1941-1943
289
..........Passing the Test in North Africa and Italy
292
..........Signal Soldiers in Europe: D-Day and After
297
..........The Asiatic and Pacific Theaters, 1943-1945
304
...
...IX. THE COLD WAR, KOREA, AND THE COSMOS
317
..........Organization, Training, and Operations, 1946-1950
317
..........The Korean War
321
..........Signals in Space
329
..........From Signals to Communications-Electronics
333
..........Force Reductions, Readiness, and the Red Scare
341
..........Organization, Training, and Operations, 1960-1964
345
..........From Cold War to Hot
348
...
...X. THE VIETNAM CONFLICT
359
..........The Origins of American Involvement
359
..........Signal Operations in an Expanding Conflict, 1965-1967
363
..........The Tet Offensive and the Quest for Peace
376
..........Signal Operations in a Contracting Conflict, 1969-1975
380
..........The Communicators' War
383
...
...XI. SIGNALING AHEAD
391
..........Post-Vietnam Reorganization
391
..........The Signal Corps and the AirLand Battle
393
..........The Information Mission Area
398
..........New Waves in Communications Technology
400
..........Signals in the Sand: The Desert War with Iraq
402
..........Looking Back to the Future
408

Appendixes

A. Chief Signal Officers and Their Successors 415
B. Chiefs of Signal 419

 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 421
GLOSSARY 435

Figures

1. Flag Positions of Myer's Original Two-Element Code 7
2. Regulation Signal Equipment 15

Table

1. General Service Code 14

Maps

1. Korea, 1953 323
2. Indochina, 1968 364

Illustrations

Signal Corps Regimental Insignia.........................................................................Frontispiece
Albert J. Myer in 1854
5
Signal Corps Camp of Instruction
10
Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton
12
Beardslee Telegraph
19
The Signal Telegraph Train
21
Col. William J. L. Nicodemus
22
Col. Benjamin J. Fisher
22
Chief Signal Officer Myer during the Peninsula Campaign
24
General Gouverneur K. Warren at the Signal Station on Little Round Top
26
Brig. Gen. Edward Porter Alexander
28
Maj. William Norris
28
Brig. Gen. Albert J. Myer
43
War Department Weather Map, 1875
48
Cleveland Abbe
50
Map of U.S. Military Telegraph Lines, 1885
53
Brig. Gen. William B. Hazen
57
Members of the Greely Arctic Expedition
59
Signal Station at Barrow Point, Alaska
60
Brig. Gen. Adolphus W. Greely
62
U.S. Signal Service Heliograph
67
Signal Corps Balloon at the World's Columbian Exposition, 1893
85
Field Telephone Station No. 4 Near San Juan Hill
91
White House Communications Center During the War With Spain
92
Signal Corps Balloon at San Juan Ford
94
Signal Corps at Work During the Battle of Manila
97
Signal Party on the Way to Malolos, Philippines
101
Signal Corps Soldiers in China During the Boxer Rebellion
102
Capt. William ("Billy") Mitchell in Alaska
107
Telegraph Repair Work at Fort Gibbon, Alaska
109
Interior of Fort Gibbon Telegraph Office
109
Brig. Gen. James Allen
123
Signal Corps Telegraph Office, San Francisco, 1906
125
Dirigible at Fort Myer, Virginia, 1908
129
Orville Wright Flies Over Fort Myer, 1908
130
Brig. Ben. George P. Scriven
134
Colonel Squier Inspects Radio Equipment
137
Col. Samuel Reber
146
Signal Corps Airplane at Dublán, Mexico
148
Radio Tractor in Mexico, 1916
150
Signal Corps Camp Telephone Office in Dublán
151
Capt. Henry H. ("Hap") Arnold
167
Maj. Gen. George O. Squier
169
"Hello Girls" in France
171
Brig. Gen. Edgar Russel
176
Telegraph Operating Room at Chaumont, France
177
Signal Communications at the Front
181
Testing a Telephone Line Left Behind by the Germans
183
Black Signal Soldiers String Wire in No Man's Land
185
Signal corps Photographer Operates a Camouflaged Camera
189
Brig. Gen Benjamin D. Foulois and General John J. Pershing
192
De Haviland Airplanes With Liberty Engines
195
Col. Edward A. Deeds
198
Code Class at Camp Alfred Vail, New Jersey
220
Signal Students Take a Break From Their Classes
221
Signal Corps Soldier Demonstrates the Employment of Pigeons
223
Mobile Pigeon Loft
223
Maj. Gen. Charles McK. Saltzman
228
Maj. Gen. George S. Gibbs
228
SCR-268
234
SCR-270-B
234
SCR-271 Radar Station in Panama
234
Maj. Gen. Irving J. Carr
237
Maj. Gen. James B. Allison
237
Maj. Gen. Joseph O. Mauborgne
238
William F. Friedman and the Staff of the Signal Intelligence Service in the 1930s
239
Maj. Gen. Dawson Olmstead
242
David Sarnoff of RCA and Capt. Frank E. Stoner Inspect Radio Transmitters at Station WAR
243
Officer Candidates at Fort Monmouth March to Class
257
WACs Operate a Radio-Telephoto Transmitter
259
Maj. Gen. Harry C. Ingles
261
German Troops Use the Enigma in the Field
265
Comanche Code-Talkers
267
The Signal Corps Photographic Center
269
Making a Signal Corps Training Film
270
Signal Corps Photographic Technician in Full Regalia
272
Signal Corps Cameramen During the Invasion of New Guinea
273
The Walkie-Talkie
278
Radioman with Handie-Talkie
278
A Typical Problem Along the Alaska Highway Telephone Line
289
Inside the Malinta Tunnel
291
Repairing Telephone Lines in Tunisia
294
SCR-584 in Italy
296
Operating the SCR-584
297
Photograph Taken by Capt. Herman V. Wall During D-Day Invasion on OMAHA Beach
300
Message Center, 101st Airborne Division
303
Signal Soldiers Carry Wire Reels Into the Jungle of New Georgia
307
GI Checks Dials in the Power Room Aboard the Apache
308
293d Joint Assault Signal Company on Luzon
309
Signal Corps Lineman String Wire in Postwar Japan
319
Maj. Gen. Spencer B. Akin
320
Signalmen in Korea Use a Water Buffalo To Stretch Wire Between Poles
325
Securing Field Wire Near the Naktong River
326
Signal Soldier Washes Negatives in an Icy Korean Mountain Stream
328
Maj. Gen. George I. Back
329
SCR-271 Radar Set Used During Project Diana
331
Signal Corps Engineering Laboratory's Astrophysics Observatory
332
The Hexagon Research and Development Center
335
Comparison of the SCR-300 and AN/PRC-6 Radios
336
Cameras and Transmitting Van of the Signal Corps Mobile Television Section
340
Students Receive Television Instruction
340
Maj. Gen. Kirke B. Lawton Greets Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens
343
Lt. Gen. James D. O'Connell
344
Maj. Gen. Ralph T. Nelson
344
Maj. Gen. Earle F. Cook
347
Maj. Gen. David P. Gibbs
347
Billboard Antennas of the BACKPORCH System
361
AN/PRC-25 Radio
366
Heliborne Command Post
367
Aerial View of the Communications Complex at Phu Lam
369
Laying Cable on Vung Chau Mountain
372
Technician Checks Equipment at the Long Binh IWCS site
374
Signal Site on Black Virgin Mountain
379
Vietnamization-American Soldier Listens in to a Class in Radio Code
381
Signal Towers at Fort Gordon, Georgia
392
Interior View of Shelter Housing Mobile Subscriber Equipment
395
Lt. Gen. Emmett Paige, Jr.
399
Fort Huachuca, Arizona
403
Soldier Operates Tactical Facsimile Machine
404
Mobile Subscriber Equipment in the Desert
405
Satellite Antenna Dish and Camouflaged Vans
405

Illustrations courtesy of the following sources: Frontispiece, pp. 5, 392, U.S. Army Signal Center and Fort Gordon; pp. 10, 12, 24, 28 (left), 43, 57, 60, 62, 94, 97, 101, 102, 107, 109 (top/bottom), 123, 125, 129, 130, 134, 146, 148, 151, 167, 169, 171, 176, 177, 181, 183, 185, 189, 192, 195, 221, 223 (bottom), 228 (left), 234 (top), 237 (left/right), 238, 242, 243, 257, 259, 261, 267, 269, 270, 272, 273, 278 (top/bottom), 291, 294, 296, 297, 300, 307, 309, 319, 320, 325, 326, 328, 329, 331, 336, 340 (top/bottom), 343, 344 (left/right), 347 (left/right), 361, 369, 372 (top left/top right/bottom), 374, 379 (top/bottom), 381, National Archives; p. 19, U.S. Army Signal Corps Museum; pp. 21, 22 (left), Brown, The Signal Corps in the War of the Rebellion; p. 22 (right), Photographic History of the Civil War, vol. 8; p. 26, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. 3, pt. 1; p. 28 (right), Valentine Museum; p. 48, Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer, 1875; p. 50, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; p. 53, Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer, 1885; pp. 59, 137, 150, U.S. Army Military History Institute; p. 67, Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer, 1888; p. 85, Chicago Public Library; pp. 92, 198, 228 (right), Library of Congress; p. 91, Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer, 1899; pp. 220, 223 (top), 332, 335, 366, U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command; pp. 234 (bottom left/bottom right), 289, U.S. Army Center of Military History; pp. 239, 265, U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command; p. 303, Army Art Collection; pp. 308, 403, U.S. Army Information Systems Command; p. 367, U.S. Army Aviation Museum; pp. 395, 405 (top), GTE; p. 399, U.S. Army Visual Information Center; and pp. 404, 405 (bottom), XVIII Airborne Corps.


Foreword

This book traces the history of the U.S. Army Signal Corps from its beginnings on the eve of the American Civil War through its participation in the Persian Gulf conflict during the early 1990s. Over the course of its 135 years of existence, the Signal Corps has often been at the forefront of the revolutionary changes that have taken place in communications technology. It contributed significantly, for example, to the development of radar and the transistor. In today's information age, the Signal Corps continues its tradition of leadership and innovation on the digitized battlefields of the twenty-first century.

While accounts of the branch's service during the Civil War, World War II, and Vietnam have been published, little has been written about the rest of the Signal Corps' accomplishments. This book fills out the picture. It shows today's signal soldiers where their branch has been and points the way to where it is going. The reader, whether military or civilian, can follow the growth and development of one of the Army's most sophisticated technical branches. By telling the Signal Corps' story in a comprehensive manner, this volume makes a significant contribution to the history of the Army.

 

DOUGLAS D. BUCHHOLZ
Major General, USA
Chief of Signal

JOHN W. MOUNTCASTLE
Brigadier General, USA
Chief of Military History

Washington, D.C.
13 November 1995

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vii


The Author

Rebecca Robbins Raines was born in Belfast, Maine, and grew up in nearby Searsport. She graduated from the University of Maine with a B.A. degree in history in 1974. From 1974 to 1977 she was employed by the Maine State Archives. She joined the Center of Military History in 1977 as a historian in the Organizational History Branch. In 1981 she received her M.A. degree in American history from Georgetown University. Mrs. Raines is the author of several articles on the history of the U.S. Army Signal Corps.

 

 

 

 

 

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viii


Preface

This volume was originally conceived as part of a larger series of popular histories about each branch of the Army. To produce this study in a relatively short time, I confined the research largely to published primary and secondary sources. The focus is upon an institutional, rather than an operational or organizational, history of the Signal Corps. While the coverage is by no means comprehensive, it is designed to provide an overview of the many and varied aspects of the Signal Corps' work during its first 130 years. These range from operating a national weather service from 1870 to 1891 to becoming responsible in the 1980s for the Army's automation program. I emphasized the branch's history up to approximately 1985 and have not dealt with more recent events at length. Because much of the material on contemporary operations, such as URGENT FURY in Grenada and JUST CAUSE in Panama, remains classified, published accounts provide only a cursory overview Operations DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM took place just as the manuscript was being finished, and I included some coverage of the Signal Corps' participation in the Persian Gulf conflict. Only the passage of time and the declassification of records will enable historians to analyze fully these most recent episodes in the Corps' history and place them in proper perspective.

The intended audience for this volume is the men and women serving in the Signal Corps, particularly students attending the Signal School at Fort Gordon, Georgia. I trust that it will help to instill in them an appreciation of the Signal Corps' rich heritage. I also hope that individuals interested in military history in general and military communications in particular will find the volume useful. The preparation of this volume would not have been possible without the support of the successive chiefs of military history, Maj. Gen. William A. Stofft, Brig. Gen. Harold W. Nelson, and Brig. Gen. John W. Mountcastle. The Center's chief historians, Morris J. MacGregor and his successor, Dr. Jeffrey J. Clarke, helped guide the manuscript to its completion. Lt. Col. Charles R. Shrader, while serving as chief of the Historical Services Division, originally proposed the branch history series and launched this volume.

Writing is a solitary task, but a writer never works alone. Any volume is a cooperative effort, and I owe many thanks to the people who have assisted me in preparing this book. From its inception, generous assistance for this project has been provided by the U.S. Army Signal Center and Fort Gordon, Georgia. My sincere thanks are owed to the following chiefs of signal who served during the course of this undertaking: Maj. Gen. Thurman D. Rodgers, Maj. Gen. Bruce R. Harris, Maj. Gen. Leo M. Childs, Maj. Gen. Peter A. Kind, Maj. Gen. Robert E. Gray, and Maj. Gen. Douglas D. Buchholz. The command historian at Fort Gordon, Dr. Carol

ix


E. Stokes, and her former assistant, Dr. Kathy R. Coker, helped me tremendously. Working with them was a pleasure.

A historian's job would be impossible without librarians, archivists, reference persons, and other invaluable colleagues. Over the years the Center's librarians and their aides have performed yeoman service under often less than ideal conditions. These dedicated individuals include Carol I. Anderson, Esther Howard, James B. Knight, and Mary L. Sawyer. I particularly appreciate their patience with me regarding overdue interlibrary loan books. Hannah M. Zeidlik and the members of the Historical Resources Branch-especially Geraldine K. Harcarik-graciously provided copies of material from the Center's archival collections. The following individuals who reviewed the manuscript at various stages provided valuable guidance and many helpful comments: Dr. Graham A. Cosmas, Dr. Albert E. Cowdrey, Romana Danysh, Col. C. Reid Franks, Dr. Mary C. Gillett, Dr. Vincent C. Jones, Morris J. MacGregor, Janice E. McKenney, Lt. Col. Robert E. Morris, Col. Robert H. Sholly, and John B. Wilson. In addition, many of my colleagues at the Center, past and present, provided advice and encouragement along the way as well as the benefits of their own extensive knowledge. In particularly wish to mention Walter H. Bradford, Dr. Norman M. Cary, Terrence J. Gough, Dr. William M. Hammond, Mary L. Haynes, Dr. Charles E. Kirkpatrick, Dr. Edgar F. Raines, Jr., and Dr. Robert K. Wright, Jr.

I also wish to acknowledge the following individuals outside the Center who generously donated their time to read the manuscript and furnish excellent commentary: Col. Alexander W Cameron, Lt. Gen. Thomas M. Rienzi, U.S. Army (Ret.), and Dr. John Y. Simon.

While writing about information systems, I was also learning how to use them as the Center made the transition to the computer age. I want to thank Sherell Fersner who typed the initial drafts of the first chapter in the days before each historian received a personal computer. I also extend a hearty round of applause to Lt. Col. Adrian G. Traas, U.S. Army (Ret.), for his technical assistance in directing the electrons along the correct paths.

I owe a huge debt of gratitude to the many individuals at other agencies and institutions for their assistance-Margaret Novinger and the staff of the Conrad Technical Library, Fort Gordon, Georgia; Theodore F. Wise of the U.S. Army Signal Corps and Fort Gordon Museum; Glenn Swan and colleagues in the Office, Chief of Signal; Linda Means in the Public Affairs Office, Fort Gordon; John Slonaker, Dennis Vetock, and Louise Amold-Friend of the Historical Reference Branch, U.S. Army Military History Institute (MHI), who kindly let me borrow most of their library, or so it seemed; Dr. Richard Sommers of the Archives Branch, MHI; and Michael Winey and Randy Hackenburg of the Special Collections Branch, MHI. Richard L. Boylan and Wilbert B. Mahoney of the National Archives and Records Administration provided much-needed guidance in locating Signal Corps records, and the staff of the Still Picture Branch assisted geatly in securing illustrations for the volume. Thanks are also due Dr. Richard B. Bingham, command historian of the U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command at Fort

x


Monmouth, New Jersey; Dr. John P. Finnegan of the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command; David W. Gaddy of the National Security Agency; Don E. MacLeod, Elaine Pospishil, and Danny M. Johnson, who have served successively as command historian of the U.S. Army Information Systems Command at Fort Huachuca, Arizona; and the staffs of the Prints and Photographs Division of the Library of Congress and the Special Collections Division of the United States Military Academy Library.

My thanks are also extended to the following individuals who assisted me in my search for illustrations: Regina Burns of the U.S. Army Aviation Museum at Fort Rucker, Alabama; Mark Dunn of the history office at Fort Gordon; Robert Hansen of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, Department of Commerce; Cynthia Hayden, Command Historian, XVIII Airborne Corps and Fort Bragg; Earle M. Levine of GTE; and Barbara Tuttle of the Fort Huachuca Museum.

I reserve a very special and heartfelt thank-you to Dr. Paul J. Scheips, formerly of the Signal Corps Historical Division and for many years a treasured colleague at the Center. Without his guidance, support, and generosity, I could never have attempted to write this volume. From my earliest days at the Center he helped me learn about the Signal Corps and spurred my interest in its history. The Signal Corps owes an enormous debt to this gentleman and scholar, whose dissertation on the first chief signal officer, Albert J. Myer, is an indispensable resource. His many published works relating to Signal Corps history make him the dean of Signal Corps historians.

I am especially grateful for the expert assistance provided by my editor, Susan Carroll. Her patience, professionalism, and good humor were geatly appreciated. I am also indebted to the Center's production staff for its skill and expertise: John W Elsberg Catherine A. Heerin, Diane Sedore Arms, Diane Donovan, Arthur S. Hardyman, Beth MacKenzie, Sherry L. Dowdy, and Howell C. Brewer, Jr.

Words alone cannot convey the thanks I owe to my family. First, my parents, Carl and Evelyn Robbins, who encouraged my interest in history from an early age. Throughout the course of this project, my husband Ed and son Eddie showed enormous patience and provided much-needed support. Ed's love and enthusiasm for military history, not to mention his voluminous library, helped me over many rough spots.

If I have overlooked anyone, it was not intentional. I am not organized enough to have kept all the notes I needed to write this essay, as anyone who has ever seen my desk can testify. Finally, despite the best efforts of the individuals cited above, any errors that remain in the text are my sole responsibility.

 

Washington, D.C.

REBECCA ROBBINS RAINES
13 November 1995  

 

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