Chapter VI
1 The U.S. Army's strength in November 1918 was 3,703,273 according to Coffman, War To End All Wars, p. 357. The strength of the active Army by the end of 1919 had been reduced to just 19,000 officers and 205,000 enlisted men (Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 406).
2 Ferrell, Wilson and World War I, p. 179; OB, vol. 1, pp. 390-94; ARSO, 1920, in ARSW, vol. 1, p. 1251; Smythe, Pershing, p. 259.
3 Coffman, War To End All Wars, pp. 357-59.
4 Crowell, America's Munitions, p. 574; Lavine, Circuits of Victory, p. 615. The 1st Field Signal Battalion was detached from the 2d Division, which returned to the United States in the summer of 1919. See OB, vol. 2, pp. 23, 57. There was also a Signal Corps detachment in Silesia; see ARSO, 1920, p. 1243; Historical Sketch, p. 95.
5 ARSO, 1919, p. 180; Lavine, Circuits of Victory, ch. 50. Ill health forced Russel to resign from the Army in December 1922 with the rank of major general. He died in 1925.
6 ARSO, 1919, pp. 543-44; OB, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 490-91.
7 Civilian control of communications was restored in July 1919. Gleason L. Archer, History of Radio to 1926 (New York: American Historical Society, Inc., 1938), p. 172.
8 Edward M. Coffman, The Hilt of the Sword: The Career of Peyton C. March (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), chs. 14 and 15; Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 405; John B. Wilson, Divisions and Separate Brigades, draft Ms, ch. 4; Kreidberg and Henry, Military Mobilization, p. 377.
9 The 1920 defense act is published in WD Bulletin 25, 9 June 1920.
10 The chief signal officer brought the total number of officers to 301. ARSO, 1921, p. 1, AGO 319.12 (10-5-21), RG 407, NARA. Beginning in 1921 the War Department ceased to publish most of the annual bureau reports in order to save money. Only an extract of the chief signal officer's report is included in the ARSW. The manuscript copies prepared by the chief signal officer and his counterparts are located in the National Archives in RG 407 (Adjutant General's Office [AGO]), Central File, file no. 319.12. Unless otherwise stated, references are to the manuscript copies of the ARSO. After 1937 the preparation of these reports was no longer required. Perhaps to fill the resulting information gap, the Signal Corps in 1920 began publishing the Signal Corps Information Bulletin (later the Signal Corps Bulletin).
11 Each corps area also supported two National Guard divisions and (theoretically, at least) three reserve divisions. The territory included within each corps area is defined per WDGO 50,20 Aug 1920.
12 Weigley, History of Army, pp. 399-400; Matloff, ed., American Military History, pp. 407-09; Hill, Minute Man in Peace and War, ch. 13; Coffman, Hilt of Sword, chs. 14 and 15; Hewes, Root to McNamara, pp. 50-56; Abrahamson, America Arms, ch. 9.
13 The Signal Corps is declared one of the combat arms in Section 2 of the 1920 defense act. Terrett, Emergency, pp. 22-23.
14 John B. Wilson, "Mobility Versus Firepower: The Post-World War I Infantry Division," Parameters 13 (Sep 1983): 47-52; Millett, "Cantigny," in Heller and Stofft, eds., First Battles, pp. 182-85.
15 "Extracts from Report of Superior Board, A.E.F., on Organization and Tactics," p. 78, RG 407, NARA. The change in doctrine is announced in WDGO 29, 18 May 1920, sec. 3. See also Scheips, "The Line and the Staff," pp. 25-26; Terrett, Emergency, p. 23.
16 ARSO, 1922, p. 5, AGO file 319.12 (10-1-22), RG 407, NARA.
17 Field Service Regulations, United States Army (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1924), pars. 88-95.
18 John B. Wilson, "Mobility vs. Firepower," p. 49.
19 Table 8P and W (peace and war strength), "Signal Company, Infantry Division," 31 Dec 1920 in Tables of Organization: Infantry and Cavalry Divisions (Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: General Service Schools Press, 1922).
20 The divisional signal companies took on the numbers of their respective divisions: e.g., the 2d Field Signal Battalion of the 1st Division became the 1st Signal Company; the 1st Field Signal Battalion of the 2d Division became the 2d Signal Company, and so on. See WDGO 5, 22 Jan 1921, and WD Cir 59, 8 Mar 1921.
21 Weigley, History of Army, p. 357, gives Regular Army strength on 1 April 1917 as 127,588.
22 John B. Wilson, Divisions and Separate Brigades, draft Ms, pp. 4:40, 5:1; Robert A. Miller, "The United States Army During the 1930s" (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1973), p. 55; Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 409; Ferrell, Wilson and World War I, p. 187.
23 ARSO, 1926, app. 1, p. 3, AGO 319.12 (10-4-26), RG 407, NARA; WD Cir 24,20 Apr 1926; Terrett, Emergency, p. 74.
24 See, for example, comments in ARSO, 1920, p. 1240; ARSO, 1926, p. 9. The turnover rate of the Signal Corps' enlisted personnel in 1924, for example, was 33 percent (ARSO, 1924, p. 10, AGO 319.12 [9-10-24], RG 407, NARA).
25 ARSO, 1919, pp. 545-47; ARSO, 1923, p. 80, AGO 319.12 (9-10-23), RG 407, NARA; ARSO, 1928, p. 12, AGO 319.12 (10-1-28), RG 407, NARA. These figures cover only the appropriation for the "Signal Service of the Army." The Corps received additional funds to cover items not included under "Signal Service," such as the Alaska communication system.
26 Terrett, Emergency, pp. 22-23; see extract of letter from Col F. R. Curtis, acting chief signal officer, dated 23 Aug 1919, to The Adjutant General, printed in Helen C. Phillips, History of the U.S. Army Signal Center and School 1919-1967 (Fort Monmouth, N.J.: U.S. Army Signal Center and School, 1967), p. 17.
27 Historical Sketch, pp. 113-16; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 25, 41-44; ARSO, 1920, pp. 1245-48. The school's curriculum is outlined in Phillips, Signal Center and School, ch. 4.
28 The 1920 defense act provided that 2 percent of the commissioned strength of each arm could be detailed as students to technical institutions each year. ARSO, 1920, pp. 1248-49.
29 The camp's redesignation is announced in WDGO 19, 6 Aug 1925.
30 Unit jacket, 51st Signal Battalion, DAMH-HSO; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 33-35,54-57.
31 According to a World War I-era joke, the Signal Corps bred pigeons with parrots so that they could speak, with angels so they could sing, and with Western Union boys so that they could both sing and salute. Terrett, Emergency, p. 222.
32 Coffey, Hap, p. 107.
33 ARSO, 1919, p. 339; ARSO, 1927, p. 22, AGO 319.12 (10-5-27), RG 407, NARA; ARSO, 1928, p. 48; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 45-48.
34 The station was located in the Munitions Building, 19th and B Streets, NW, in downtown Washington. B Street was later renamed Constitution Avenue.
35 Pauline M. Oakes, The Army Command and Administrative Communications System, Part 1: War Department Radio Net Thru Fiscal Years 1920-1940, typescript [Washington, D.C.: Signal Corps Historical Section, Oct 1945], p. 80, copy in CMH files.
36 ARSO, 1925, supplement, p. 14, AGO 319.12 (9-8-25), RG 407, NARA. For details on the net, see discussion in the ARSO beginning in 1922. See also Historical Sketch, pp. 106-07; Edward F. French, "War Department Radio Net," in Scheips, ed., Military Signal Communications, vol. 1. The system later became known as the Army Command and Administrative Network (ACAN).
37 Historical Sketch, pp. 106-07; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 49-50; Oakes, Army Command and Administrative Communications System, pt. 1, ch. 1.
38 Historical Sketch, pp. 108-10; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 54-55; Oakes, Army Command and Administrative Communications System, pt. 1, pp. 69-73; D. M. Crawford, "The Army Amateur Radio System," Signal Corps Bulletin 47 (Mar 1929), reprinted in Scheips, ed., Military Signal Communications, vol. 2; ARSO, 1926, pp. 7-8; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 39-40. Amateur operators had already formed their own organization, known as the American Radio Relay League. The net control station moved to Washington in 1930. ARSO, 1930, p. 13, AGO 319.12 (10-10-30), RG 407, NARA.
39 Aitken, Continuous Wave, pp. 256-78.
40 Howeth, Communications-Electronics in Navy, pp. 295-96; Aitken, Continuous Wave, pp. 262-67; Erik Barnouw, A History of Broadcasting in the United States, 3 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966-1970), 1: 50-58.
41 Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels urged Congress to give the Navy exclusive control over radio. See Howeth, Communications-Electronics in Navy, ch. 27.
42 The Navy played a central role in the formation of RCA. President Wilson's role in encouraging its creation is less clear. For background about RCA's establishment and the terms of the agreements, see Aitken, Continuous Wave, chs. 6-10; Archer, History of Radio, chs. 9-11; and Howeth, Communications-Electronics in Navy, ch. 30. Douglas, Inventing Broadcasting, and Barnouw, History of Broadcasting, volume 1, provide briefer treatments. Edward J. Nally, chief executive of American Marconi, became RCA's first president. He was succeeded in 1923 by Maj. Gen. James G. Harbord, formerly chief of staff of the AEF. In 1930 the Department of Justice indicted RCA under the antitrust statutes. Consequently, the corporation was restructured and its exclusive licensing agreements terminated.
43 The network was formed in conjunction with General Electric and Westinghouse. RCA owned 50 percent, General Electric 30 percent, and Westinghouse 20 percent. Aitken, Continuous Wave, p. 486, n. 12. The acquisition of RCA by General Electric in 1985 brought events full circle.
44 During World War I Westinghouse developed the SCR-69 and SCR-70 radiotelephone transmitters for the Signal Corps. Aitken, Continuous Wave, p. 458, n. 55. Westinghouse joined the RCA group in 1921.
45 ARSO, 1922, p. 1; Barnouw, History of Broadcasting, 1: 4.
46 In the interim, an Interdepartmental Radio Advisory Committee (IRAC) had been formed in 1923. The 1927 act is discussed by Barnouw, History of Broadcasting, 1: 195-201, and the legislation itself is included in an appendix. Under the Communications Act of 1934 the FCC assumed regulatory control over radio, telephone, telegraph, and cables. A member of the FCC sat on the IRAC, which continued in existence and recommended to the president which frequencies should be assigned to government agencies. See ARSO, 1936, p. 15, AGO 319.12 (8-20-36), RG 407, NARA; Philip T. Rosen, The Modern Stentors: Radio Broadcasters and the Federal Government, 1920-1934 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), chs. 10 and 11; Howeth, Communications-Electronics in Navy, ch. 42, which covers the radio conferences up to World War II.
47 Clark, "Squier," p. 387; Rosen, Modern Stentors, pp. 108, 121-23.
48 ARSO, 1923, pp. 22 and 39. Of the forty-three stations, eighteen employed radio.
49 U.S. Army, Alaska, The Army's Role in the Building of Alaska (Pamphlet 360-5, 1 Apr 1969), pp. 56-61; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 57-58; Historical Sketch, p. 104; ARSO, 1927, p. 7; U.S. Army Signal Corps, "The Alaska Cable System," in Scheips, ed., Military Signal Communications, vol. 1.
50 These observations were made at 0800, 1200, and 1700, 75th meridian time. See chapter 2 for information on the Corps' earlier weather activities.
51 ARSO, 1921, p. 69; Flammer, "Meteorology in U.S. Army," ch. 3.
52 ARSO, 1926, p. 14; Maurer, Aviation in U.S. Army, pp. 160 and 396-97; Whitnah, Weather Bureau, pp. 178-79; Bates and Fuller, Weather Warriors, ch. 3.
53 ARSO, 1924, p. 25; ARSO, 1925, supplement, p. 16. For more on the flight, see Ernest A. McKay, A World To Conquer: The Epic Story of the First Around-the-World Flight (New York: Arco Publishing Inc., 1981); Maurer, Aviation in U.S. Army, pp. 186-88; Walker and Wickham, Huffman Prairie to Moon, pp. 63-71.
54 ARSO, 1920, pp. 1293-96; ARSO, 1922, pp. 38-39. The Virginia Avenue location was known as Tempo Building Number 6.
55 Per WDGO 26, 30 Dec 1925, which rescinded WDGO 17, 9 Jul 1925; ARSO, 1925, supplement, p. 48; Terrett, Emergency, p. 80.
56 Terrett, Emergency, pp. 78-82; ARSO, 1931, partial report, p. 18, AGO 319.12 (8-12-31), RG 407, NARA.
57 Otto Friedrich, "Trapped in a Musical Elevator," Time, 10 Dec 1984, pp. 110-12; Jeanne McDermott, "If it's to be heard but not listened to, it must be Muzak," Smithsonian 20 (Jan 1990): 70-82.
58 Clark, "Squier," pp. 388-90, discusses many of his honors and awards.
59 Section 4c of the National Defense Act contains this provision.
60 See Saltzman's entries in Cullum, Biographical Register. He was West Point graduate number 3697. See also his obituary in Assembly 2 (Apr 1943): 5-8. In 1942 the West Point association of graduates began a quarterly publication, Assembly, and obituaries of former cadets thereafter appear therein.; see also "Saltzman, Charles M.," biographical files, DAMH-HSR.
61 Gibbs, George S.," biographical files, DAMH-HSR; Historical Sketch, p. 97; Francis B. Heitman, Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army From Its Organization, September 29, 1789, to March 2, 1903, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1903), 1: 453.
62 Koistinen, "The 'Industrial-Military Complex,"' pp. 819-39.
63 ARSO, 1924, p. 41.
64 Field Service Regulations, 1923, par. 89.
65 ARSO, 1921, p. 32; Cochrane, Measures for Progress, p. 431.
66 H. P. Browning, "The Application of Teletypewriters to Military Signaling," Signal Corps Bulletin 78 (May-Jun 1934): 28-40 (reprinted in Scheips, ed., Military Signal Communications, vol. 2); Paul J. Scheips, "Introduction," in Scheips, ed., Military Signal Communications, vol. 1; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 178, 232-33.
67 ARSO, 1924, p. 28; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 31-32; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 77-78 (who describes the Signal Corps Board as the most important of the boards and committees at the disposal of the chief signal officer.); Historical Sketch, p. 116.
68 Oakes, Army Command and Administrative Communications System, pt. 1, p. 85. During 1926 and 1927 the War Department Radio Net switched to high-frequency transmitters. See ARSO, 1926, app., p. 29.
69 Terrett, Emergency, pp. 139-41.
70 During the war Armstrong allowed the government the free use of his FM patents for military purposes. Lessing, Man of High Fidelity, p. 250.
71 Miller, "Army During the 1930s," p. 126; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 141-47, 178-85; Cary, "Use of the Motor Vehicle in the U.S. Army," chs. 5 and 6.
72 Maurer, Aviation in U.S. Army, p. 158; Terrett, Emergency, p. 28. See AR, par. 1556, amended 10 May 1920, that reflects the change in radio responsibilities.
73 Maurer, Aviation in U.S. Army, p. 159; ARSO, 1926, app. 1, p. 41; Terrett, Emergency, p. 29. Progress on each type of radio set is discussed in each ARSO. Beginning in 1932, research and development is included as a classified supplement to the report.
74 Maurer, Aviation in U.S. Army, pp. 231-38.
75 Terrett, Emergency, p. 120.
76 Ibid., p. 30; ARSO, 1928, pp. 30-31; Maurer, Aviation in U.S. Army, pp. 256-60; Walker and Wickham, Huffman Prairie to Moon, pp. 207-09. Although James D. Dole of the Hawaiian Pineapple Company offered $25,000 in August 1927 to whomever could make the first nonstop flight from the United States to Hawaii, the feat had already been accomplished by Maitland and Hegenberger. For more on their accomplishment, see Robert H. Scheppler, Pacific Air Race (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988).
77 Terrett, Emergency, pp. 88-94. The Air Corps flew the mail from February to June 1934. For details, see Maurer, Aviation in U.S. Army, ch. 17; Flammer, "Meteorology in U.S. Army," ch. 4; Coffey, Hap, pp. 156-58; Foulois, Memoirs, ch. 14.
78 See Squier's obituary in USMA Graduates Report (1934), pp. 157-62.
79 ARSO, 1929, p. 29, AGO 319.12 (9-26-29), RG 407, NARA; Terrett, Emergency, p. 27, n. 23.
80 The term "radar" was coined by the Navy in 1940 and accepted by the Army in 1942. Allison, New Eye for the Navy, p. 1, n. 2; Harry M. Davis, "History of the Signal Corps Development of U.S. Army Radar Equipment," in three parts (New York: Office of the Chief Signal Officer, Historical Section Field Office, 1944), pt. 1, p. 2, copy in CMH files; Terrett, Emergency, p. 41.
81 Allison, New Eye, pp. 137-41; Howeth, Communications-Electronics in Navy, ch. 38. Although the Army exchanged information with the Navy regarding radar, each service conducted its studies independently.
82 Henry E. Guerlac, Radar in World War II, 2 vols. (Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers, 1987), 1: ch. 5; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 35-48.
83 Ltr, Maj Gen James B. Allison to The Adjutant General, 23 Oct 1936, sub: Airplane Detection Device (24 Sep 1936), 2d Ind, quoted by Davis, "Development of Radar Equipment," pt. 1, p. 43.
84 Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. "Blair, William Richards," Supplement 7, p. 58; "Retirement of Col. William R. Blair," Signal Corps Bulletin 103 (Jan-Mar 1939): 86-88; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 64, 96-102; Davis, "Development of Radar Equipment," pt. 1, chs. 3-6; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 35-48. Blair received patent rights for his invention of SCR-268 in 1957. Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 7, n. 20. Blair also patented the radiosonde, which used radio signals from unmanned balloons to transmit weather information from the upper atmosphere (Davis, "Development of Radar Equipment," pt. 1, p. 19).
85 Ltr, Harry H. Woodring to Maj Gen James B. Allison, 2 Jun 1937, quoted by Davis, "Development of Radar Equipment," pt. 1, pp. 53-54.
86 Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, 7 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948-1958), 6: 83; Guerlac, Radar in World War II, 1: 103.
87 Terrett, Emergency, pp. 46--47; Davis, "Development of Radar Equipment," pt. 1, p. 4.
88 Scheips, "Introduction," in Scheips, ed., Military Signal Communications, vol. 1; Davis, "Development of Radar Equipment," pt. 1, p. 25.
89 Gibbs increased the number of divisions within his office from four to seven: Meteorological, Personnel, Photographic, Plant and Traffic, Research and Development, Supply, and War Plans and Training. The Signal Office retained this organization until 1941. Terrett, Emergency, p. 71.
90 His positions included vice president of the International Telephone and Telegraph Company, president of the Postal Telegraph Company, and vice chairman of the board and director of the Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation. See Terrett, Emergency, pp. 77 and 98.
91 Historical Sketch, pp. 98-99; "Carr, Irving J.," biographical files, DAMH-HSR.
92 Maurer, Aviation in U.S. Army, p. 348; Oakes, Army Command and Administrative Communications System, pt. 1, p. 38; Arch L. Madsen, "CCC Amateur Radio Operators Lauded," Signal Corps Regimental Association Notes 6 (Winter 1993): 6-7; Kreidberg and Henry, Military Mobilization, pp. 461-63; ARSO, 1934, pp. 5-6, AGO 319.12 (9-27-34), RG 407, NARA; ARSO, 1935, p. 12, AGO 319.12 (8-19-35), RG 407, NARA; John W. Killigrew, "The Impact of the Great Depression on the Army, 1929-1936" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1960), chs. 12 and 13.
93 ARSO, 1933, p. 6, AGO 319.12 (10-19-33), RG 407, NARA; Leonard S. Wilson, "Army Role in IGY Research," Army Information Digest 12 (Oct 1957): 34; Cochrane, Measures for Progress, pp. 354-55; J. Tuzo Wilson, I.G.Y.- The Year of the New Moons (New York: Knopf, 1961), p. 8.
94 Terrett, Emergency, p. 72, n. 7. For information on Allison's career, see Historical Sketch, p. 100; "Allison, James Beardner," biographical files, DAMH-HSR; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 36-38.
95 ARSO, 1935, p. 2.
96 Terrett, Emergency, p. 70; ARSO, 1931, p. 1.
97 ARSO, 1933, pp. 5-6; Historical Sketch, p. 104. The Dellwood was called back to service as a cableship during World War II. She sank off Attu in the Aleutians in July 1943. See History of Alaska Communication System, typescript in custody of the U.S. Army Signal Museum, Fort Gordon, Georgia. There are two volumes that discuss the cableships during World War II. Volume one contains a chapter about the Dellwood. See also U.S. Army, Alaska, The Army's Role in Building Alaska, p. 98.
98 The name was changed per WD Cir 31, 27 May 1936.
99 Joseph E. Alexander, "Accuracy First," Recruiting News 17 (15 Sep 1935): 6-7; Edwin C. Nichols, "Lifeline to the North," Army Information Digest 9 (Nov 1954): 32-45.
100 Bauer, comp., List of World War I Signal Corps Films; ARSO, 1936, p. 13; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 81-82.
101 ARSO, 1936, p. 14.
102 ARSO, 1937, pp. 12-13, AGO 319-12 (8-31-37), RG 407, NARA; Historical Sketch, p. 110; Flammer, "Meteorology in U.S. Army," ch. 4; Bates and Fuller, Weather Warriors, pp. 46-47. See also AR 95-150, 1 Jul 1937, sub: Air Corps Weather Service.
103 On becoming chief signal officer, Mauborgne was promoted from colonel to the rank of major general. See "Mauborgne, Joseph Oswald," in Who Was Who in America (Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, Inc., 1975); Historical Sketch, p. 101; biographical files, DAMH-HSR.
104 Kahn, Codebreakers, p. 7; Finnegan, Military Intelligence, pp. 54-55; Clark, Man Who Broke Purple, p. 84; Bruce W. Bidwell, History of the Military Intelligence Division, Department of the Army General Staff: 1775-1941 (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, Inc., 1986), pt. 3, ch. 7. After its formation in 1945, Friedman joined the Army Security Agency, which later became the National Security Agency.
105 The triangular division had a strength of about 13,500, compared to 28,000 for the square division. See T/O 11-7P (Triangular Div), "Signal Company, Division," in Tables of Organization and Reference Data for the Infantry Division (Triangular) (Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: Command and General Staff School Press, 1939); Jean R. Moenk, A History of Large-Scale Army Maneuvers in the United States, 1935-1964 (Fort Monroe, Va.: U.S. Continental Army Command, 1969), pp. 21-22; Terrett, Emergency, pp. 84-86, 152; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 70-79; John B. Wilson, Divisions and Separate Brigades, draft Ms, ch. 5.
106 Weigley, History of the Army, p. 417.
107 Kreidberg and Henry, Military Mobilization, pp. 380-81; Reingold, Science and Army, pp. 119-31; R. Elberton Smith, The Army and Economic Mobilization, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1959), ch. 2.
108 Smith, Army and Economic Mobilization, p. 45.
109 Matloff, ed., American Military History, pp. 416-17; Terrett, Emergency, p. 104.
110 Matloff, ed., American Military History, pp. 417-18; Kreidberg and Henry, Military Mobilization, pp. 561-63.
111 Cary, "Use of the Motor Vehicle in the U.S. Army," p. 193 and table 3, p. 234.
112 Terrett, Emergency, p. 152.
113 Later that year the Army also conducted maneuvers in New York State, the Carolinas, and Wisconsin. Terrett, Emergency, pp. 152-65.
114 Weigley, History of Army, p. 427-33; Matloff, ed., American Military History, pp. 419-20.
115 Terrett, Emergency, p. 272. When questioned about his action during congressional hearings four years later, Marshall could not recall why he had relieved Mauborgne.
116 "Olmstead, Dawson," biographical files, DAMH-HSR; Historical Sketch, pp. 118-19.
117 Roberta Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1962), p. 75, n. 5; Finnegan, Military Intelligence, pp. 54-55.
118 PURPLE came into use in 1937. It is a cipher and not a code. See Clark, Man Who Broke Purple, ch. 7, and Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor, p. 170, n. 1.
119 The most comprehensive account of the events leading up to the Pearl Harbor attack is Gordon W. Prange, At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1981).
120 Oakes, Army Command and Administrative Communications System, pt. 1, pp. 31, 35, 102.
121 Ibid., pt. 1, pp. 103-07; Terrett, Emergency, p. 96.
122 Davis, "Development of Radar Equipment," pt. 3, ch. 8.
123 Clark, Man Who Broke Purple, p. 169. For details on the role of MAGIC and the Pearl Harbor attack, see Kahn, Codebreakers, pp. 1-68; Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor, ch. 3; Bidwell, Military Intelligence Division, pt. 4. On the attack itself, see also Terrett, Emergency, pp. 299-306; George R. Thompson, Dixie R. Harris, Pauline M. Oakes, and Dulany Terrett, The Signal Corps: The Test, United States Army in World War 11 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1957), pp. 3-10. On Marshall's role, see Pogue, Marshall, 2: ch. 10 and app. 1; Mark S. Watson, Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Historical Division, Department of the Army, 1950), pp. 512-18. In the aftermath of the attack, both Kimmel and Short were relieved from their commands.
124 Henry Steele Commager, ed., Documents of American History, 2 vols. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973), 2: 451; Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 312.
125 As quoted in Charles Hurd, comp., A Treasury of Great American Quotations (New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1964), p. 283.
