Chapter IX

1 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 620-23.

2 The dissolution of the ASF is announced in WD Circular 138, 14 May 1946. The Army Ground Forces and the Army Air Forces were retained for the time being. See also Millett, Army Service Forces, epilogue; Smith, Army and Economic Mobilization, p. 115; Hewes, Root to McNamara, ch. 4.

3 Edgar F. Raines, Jr., and David R. Campbell, The Army and the Joint Chiefs of Staff Evolution of Army Ideas on the Command, Control, and Coordination of the U.S. Armed Forces, 1942-1985 (Washington, D.C.: Analysis Branch, U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1986), chs. 3 and 4; Hewes, Root to McNamara, pp. 163-66.

4 Hewes, Root to McNamara, pp. 271-72; Matloff, ed., American Military History, pp. 532-33; Weigley, History of Army, pp. 490-95.

5 ARSO, 1946, p. 349.

6 Ibid., pp. 45, 47, 376, 384-86.

7 ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, p. 81. The Office of the Chief Signal Officer published two of these quadrennial reports, one covering its operations from May 1951 to April 1955 and the other from May 1955 to April 1959. Copies of these reports are in the CMH library.

8 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 620-23; John D. Bergen, Military Communications: A Test for Technology, United States Army in Vietnam (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1986), pp. 168-69.

9 ARSO, 1946, p. 560; ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, p. 47.

10 ARSO, 1946, devotes chapter 9 to the Army Pictorial Service.

11 A sketch of Gordon's career is included in Ezra J. Warner, Generals in Gray (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959). During World War I a cantonment near Atlanta had borne the designation Camp Gordon. Carol E. Rios, "The Home of the Signal Corps," Army Communicator 11 (Summer 1986): 50-51; Smith, Army and Economic Mobilization, p. 449; ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, pp. 81-82. Camp Gordon became Fort Gordon on 21 March 1956.

12 DAGO 35, 3 Aug 49; Phillips, Signal Center and School, p. 206.

13 John B. Wilson, Divisions and Separate Brigades, draft Ms, ch. 8. The 1st Cavalry Division was reorganized on 25 March 1949 and the 1st Signal Troop was redesignated as the 13th Signal Company. See "1st Cavalry Division" in John B. Wilson, Armies, Corps, Divisions, and Separate Brigades, pp. 127-28; Lineage and Honors Certificate, 13th Signal Battalion, copy in unit jacket, DAMH-HSO.

14 John B. Wilson, Divisions and Separate Brigades, draft Ms, pp. 7:7, 8:49; Kent Roberts Greenfield, Army Ground Forces and the Air-Ground Battle Team Including Organic Light Aviation, Study no. 35 (Washington, D.C.: Historical Section, Army Ground Forces, 1948).

15 John B. Wilson, Divisions and Separate Brigades, draft Ms, p. 9:16. In addition to the signal company, the tables assigned helicopters to the headquarters company, division artillery, the infantry regiments, and the engineer battalion. See TOE 7-7 (15 May 1952). Aircraft assets for airborne divisions followed those for the infantry division, while those for the armored division differed only slightly.

16 On the types of aircraft allotted to the field army signal operation battalion, see TOE 11-95 (13 June 1949), and 11-95A (11 February 1952).

17 The act is published as DA Bulletin 9, 6 July 1950. See also Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 541; Weigley, History of Army, pp. 495-96; Hewes, Root to McNamara, pp. 208-12. Paul J. Scheips in his study, The Line and the Staff, pp. 37-38, points out that the term combat arm is not specifically used in the legislation. Because Infantry, Armor, and Artillery are not listed under services, they are thereby imbued with a special status, which is understood to be that of combat arms.

18 Its actual strength was 593,526. Strength of the Army (1 Jun 1950), p. 3; Weigley, History of Army, p. 502.

19 "Gen. Harry C. Ingles, Chief Signal Officer Dies," Washington Post, 16 Aug 1976; Bilby, The General, p. 153. According to Bilby, Sarnoff actively recruited Ingles for the position.

20 Matloff, ed., American Military History, pp. 535-37; Clay Blair, The Forgotten War. America in Korea, 1950-1953 (New York: Times Books, 1988), ch. 2.

21 On this subject, see Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981, 1990).

22 Blair, Forgotten War, pp. 28, 48-50; Roy E. Appleman, South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu, United States Army in the Korean War (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, 1961), pp. 49-50, 113-14; Roy K. Flint, "Task Force Smith and the 24th Infantry Division," in Heller and Stoffr, eds., America's First Battles, pp. 271-74.

23 The six Regular Army divisions were 1st Cavalry, 2d Infantry, 3d Infantry, 7th Infantry, 24th Infantry, and 25th Infantry. The two National Guard units were the 40th Infantry Division from California and the 45th Infantry Division from Oklahoma.

24 The twenty UN members included the United States, Great Britain, Greece, and Thailand. For a complete list, see Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 550. Because the Republic of Korea (South Korea) did not belong to the United Nations, its army was considered an allied force. Appleman, South to the Naktong, p. 382.

25 ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, p. 2.

26 Ibid., pp. 79, 82, 88.

27 Ibid., pp. 70-72.

28 Ibid., p. 2. General Matthew B. Ridgway comments on the lack of corps-level troops in The Korean War (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1967), p. 34.

29 George Lieberberg, "Developing a Signal Organization," in John G. Westover, ed., Combat Support in Korea (Washington, D.C.: Combat Forces Press, 1955), p. 88. Although the corps headquarters were activated in August 1950 (I Corps on 2 August 1950 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, and IX Corps on 10 August 1950 at Fort Sheridan, Illinois), they did not become fully operational in Korea for some time. Appleman, South to the Naktong, pp. 544-55.

30 The divisional companies arrived in Korea as follows: 13th Signal Company, 18 July; 24th Signal Company, 5 July; 25th Signal Company, 14 July. See unit jackets and unit data cards in DAMH-HSO. The earliest Directory and Station List of the United States Army in which they appear in Korea is that for 1 September 1950. By that time other signal units had also arrived in Korea from Japan and elsewhere.

31 Appleman, South to the Naktong, pp. 110-11.

32 Wayne A. Striley, "The Mukden Cable," in Westover, ed., Combat Support in Korea, p. 96.

33 Flint, "Task Force Smith," in Heller and Stofft, eds., America's First Battles, pp. 278-82,298.

34 Appleman, South to the Naktong, pp. 70, 81, 123, 179-80.

35 Pitcher, "Signal Operations in Korea," in Westover, ed., Combat Support in Korea, p. 97.

36 John W. Pierce, "Answers Not in Textbooks," in Westover, ed., Combat Support in Korea, p. 89.

37 Kenneth E. Shiflet, "'Communications Hill' in Korea," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, pp. 188-91.

38 Blair, Forgotten War, p. 431.

39 Ibid., p. 42; Appleman, South to the Naktong, p. 2.

40 ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, p. 23; Anon., "News of the Services," United States Army Combat Forces Journal 2 (Oct 1951): 45; The Army Almanac (Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Co., 1959), p. 38.

41 The radar set became designated as AN/MPQ-10. ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, pp. 22-24, 58, 85; "127th Signal Company," in Paul C. Waring, History of the 7th Infantry (Bayonet) Division (Tokyo: Dai Nippon Printing Co., 1967).

42 Anon., "News of the Services," United States Army Combat Forces Journal 2 (Sep 1951): 45.

43 The aircraft belonged to the battalion's message center operation company. See TOE 11-99A (13 Jun 1949). The pilots, members of the Signal Corps, received their flight instruction at the Division of Air Training of the Field Artillery School. For details on the Signal Corps' use of planes in Korea, see "The World's Biggest Little Airline," reprinted in Westover, ed., Combat Support in Korea, pp. 100-102 (originally published in Signal, Nov-Dec 1951); Anon., "News of the Services," United States Army Combat Forces Journal 2 (Oct 1951): 45; "History, Organization, and Equipment of Aviation Sections" (Fort Sill, Okla.: Army Aviation School, Dec 1953).

44 "Laying Telephone Wire by Air," from Command Report, 23d Infantry (Oct 1951), in Westover, ed., Combat Support in Korea, p. 242.

45 Phillips, Signal Center and School, p. 306.

46 Cass J. Joswiak, "Division Aerial Photography," in Westover, ed., Combat Support in Korea, pp. 102-04; "25th Signal Company," in Richard T. Pullen, Robert E. Christensen, and James C. Totten, eds., 25th Infantry Division, Tropic Lightning in Korea (Atlanta, Ga.: Albert Love Enterprises, 1954); Charles F. Vale, "Combat Through the Camera's Eye," Army Information Digest 8 (Mar 1953): 54-59. See Field Manual 11-40, "Signal Photography," editions of January 1951 and April 1954. See also TOE 11-7N (3 May 1948), and its replacement, TOE 11-7 (15 May 1952). By the end of September 1951 Signal Corps cameramen had shot over 780,000 feet of motion picture film and sent it for processing to the Astoria Photographic Center. See Anon., "News of the Services," United States Army Combat Forces Journal 2 (Dec 1951): 43.

47 Appleman, South to the Naktong, p. 12.

48 Ibid., p. 704. Blair, Forgotten War, p. 382.

49 Appleman, South to the Naktong, pp. 252-53; Blair, Forgotten War, p. 170.

50 Army headquarters returned to Taegu on 23 September. Appleman, South to the Naktong, pp. 416, 574.

51 Ibid., chs. 25 and 26.

52 Ibid., p. 673.

53 127th Signal Battalion," in Waring, History of 7th Infantry Division; DAGO 33, 31 Mar 1952.

54 Blair, Forgotten War, p. 552.

55 Ridgway, Korean War, p. 119.

56 Blair, Forgotten War, p. 775.

57 ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, p. 3 and app.; "Back, George," biographical files, DAMH-HSR.

58 Lt. Gen. James A. Van Fleet replaced Ridgway as commander of the Eighth Army in April 1951.

59 The total casualty figure is that given in Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 569. The Signal Corps casualty figure appears in Scheips, The Line and the Staff, n. 59. The Signal Corps ranked third among the technical services, with the Army Medical Service and the Corps of Engineers sustaining about 3,000 casualties each. See Office of The Adjutant General, Battle Casualties of the Army, 30 September 1954 (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, n.d.).

60 Appleman, South to the Naktong, p. 599, n. 59, and Eighth Army GO 35, 21 Jan 51.

61 For a discussion of the integration of the Army, see Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965, Defense Studies (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1981), ch. 17. For the award to the 272d Signal Construction Company, see DAGO 79, 11 September 1951; Barnes, "We, Too, Serve Proudly," pp. 41-45. In 1952 black soldiers comprised between 8 and 9 percent of the Signal Corps' overall strength. MacGregor, Integration ofArmed Forces, table 10, p. 458.

62 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 629; ARSO, 1946, pp. 13-15; R. T. Nelson, "Signals in Space," Army Information Digest 16 (May 1961): 11-21. This article is reprinted in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, pp. 267-75.

63 Walter A. McDougall,. . . The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1985), ch. 4.

64 Leonard S. Wilson, "Army Role in IGY Research," pp. 33-40; Clarence T. Smith, "Pioneering in IGY Research," Army Information Digest 15 (Mar 1960): 32-50; J. Tuzo Wilson, Year of the New Moons, discusses the IGY programs in depth. See also McDougall, Heavens and Earth, pp. 118-23; ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 11-12; Hans K. Ziegler, "A Signal Corps Space Odyssey: Part I-Prelude to SCORE," Army Communicator 6 (Fall 1981): 19-21.

65 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, p. 152.

66 Ibid., ch. 1.

67 Clark, "Squier," pp. 307-13.

68 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, pp. 44-45.

69 Ibid., pp. 118-23, 168; Anon., "Army Explorer in Orbit," Army Information Digest 13 (Apr 1958): 5; J. B. Medaris, "The Explorer Satellites and How We Launched Them," Army Information Digest 13 (Oct 1958): 4-16; Dan Cragg, "The Day Army Made U.S. Space History," Army 33 (Oct 1983): 260-61; Ziegler, "Space Odyssey: Part I," p. 22; Roger E. Bilstein, Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915-1990 (Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1989), pp. 44-47.

70 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, pp. 129-31, 154; ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, p. 25; Ziegler, "Space Odyssey: Part I," p. 23; H. McD. Brown, "A Signal Corps Space Odyssey: Part II-SCORE and Beyond," Army Communicator 7 (Winter 1982): 19; Concise History of Fort Monmouth, p. 41; Karl Larew, Meteorology in the U.S. Army Signal Corps, 1870-1960, typescript [Washington, D.C.: Signal Corps Historical Division, 1960], pp. 74-75, copy in author's files; John P. Hagen, "The Viking and the Vanguard," Technology and Culture 4 (Fall 1963): 435-51; "John Peter Hagen Dies at 82; Headed Satellite Program," Washington Post, 1 Sep 1990.

71 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, chs. 6 and 7; Bilstein, Orders of Magnitude, pp. 47-48.

72 Brown, "Space Odyssey: Part II," pp. 12-22; McDougall, Heavens and Earth, p. 190.

73 Brown, "Space Odyssey: Part II," pp. 20-21; "Courier Satellite Widens Communications Horizon," Army Information Digest 15 (Dec 1960): 17; Nelson, "Signals in Space," pp. 18-20; Bilstein, Orders of Magnitude, p. 56; David J. Marshall, "Modern Signal Research," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 198.

74 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, p. 198.

75 Brown, "Space Odyssey: Part II," p. 22.

76 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, p. 221; Brown, "Space Odyssey: Part II," pp. 19-20; Historical Sketch of the United States Army Signal Corps, 1860-1966 (Washington, D.C.: Historical Division, Office of the Chief Signal Officer, n.d.), p. 36; Whitnah, Weather Bureau, pp. 238-40; Bates and Fuller, Weather Warriors, pp. 174-76; Larew, Meteorology in Signal Corps, p. 75; "TV Eyes on the World's Weather," Army Information Digest 15 (Jun 1960): 65; Morris Tepper, "TIROS Payload and Ground System," Signal 14 (Aug 1960): 25.

77 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, p. 358; Bilstein, Orders of Magnitude, p. 56; Ziegler, "Space Odyssey: Part I," p. 20.

78 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, pp. 353-60; Bilstein, Orders of Magnitude, pp. 64-66, 83. The International Telecommunications Convention of 1973 regulated the use of comsats and radio frequencies. McDougall, Heavens and Earth, p. 431.

79 Bergen, Test for Technology, p. 111.

80 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, p. 259.

81 ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, pp. 76-77, 82.

82 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, p. 2.

83 George J. Eltz, "New Home for Electronic Wizards," Army Information Digest 10 (Aug 1955): 40-42; ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, p. 22; Concise History of Fort Monmouth, p. 35.

84 Concise History of Fort Monmouth, p. 40; DAGO 12, 28 Mar 1958.

85 Anon., "News of the Services," United States Army Combat Forces Journal 2 (Sep 1951): 45; Harold A. Zahl, "Toward Lighter Signal Equipment," Army Information Digest 8 (Jun 1953): 31-35.

86 Thomas J. Misa, "Military Needs, Commercial Realities, and the Development of the Transistor, 1948-1958," in Merritt Roe Smith, ed., Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985), p. 266.

87 Misa, "Development of the Transistor," pp. 262-63.

88 Two scientists independently arrived at the idea of the integrated circuit: Jack Kilby in 1958 and Robert Noyce in 1959. Noyce eventually received the patent. See the detailed account in T. R. Reid, The Chip: How Two Americans Invented the Microchip and Launched a Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984). See also Michael S. Malone, The Big Score: The Billion Dollar Story of Silicon Valley (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1985), pp. 199-220.

89 Paul J. Scheips, "Introduction," in Scheips, ed., Military Signal Communications, vol. 1; Reid, The Chip, ch. 6.

90 Bush, Pieces of the Action, pp. 181-85; Larry Owens, "Vannevar Bush and the Differential Analyzer: The Text and Context of an Early Computer," Technology and Culture 27 (Jan 1986): 63-95; Cochrane, Measures for Progress, pp. 453-54.

91 Lewin, Ultra Goes to War, pp. 129-33; "Alan Turing: Can a Machine Be Made to Think?" in Robert Slater, Portraits in Silicon (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987), pp. 12-20. The British government did not begin declassifying information about Colossus until the 1970s.

92 "John V. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert: The Men Who Built ENIAC," in Slater, Portraits in Silicon, pp. 62-79; Nancy Stern, "The Eckert-Mauchly Computers: Conceptual Triumphs, Commercial Tribulations," Technology and Culture 23 (Oct 1982): 569-82.

93 Marshall, "Modern Signal Research," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 197; ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 20-22, 41-42; Watts S. Humphrey, "MOBIDIC and Fieldata," Annals of the History of Computing 9 (1987): 137-82; "Fieldata Aids for the Command Post of the Future," Army Information Digest 17 (Feb 1962): 14-19.

94 Phillips, Signal Center and School, pp. 306-11; Department of Defense, Office of Public Information, News Release no. 1255-56 (4 Dec 1956), "Pigeon Training Activity to be Closed at Army Signal Corps Post Soon," copy in author's files; Tom R. Kovach, "History's Most Useful Warbird," Military History 4 (Aug 1987): 52-56; Ron Frain, "The Signal Corps Was for the Birds," Army Communicator 1 (Winter 1976): 52-53.

95 ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, pp. 14-16, 89; DAGO 2, 14 Jan 54; John B. Spore, "Quiet Please! Electronics Being Tested," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, pp. 238-47; F. W. Moorman, "Better Command Control," Army Information Digest 14 (Jun 1959): 52-61; Cornelius C. Smith, Jr., Fort Huachuca, the Story of a Frontier Post (Fort Huachuca, Ariz.: 1978), pp. 317-20.

96 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. ix, 8-9, 35-38, 98-100; William M. Thames, "Combat Surveillance Looks to the Future," Army Information Digest 15 (Mar 1960): 52-59.

97 This agency was known as the U.S. Army Signal Missile Support Agency. Von Braun and his team moved to Redstone Arsenal, Alabama, in November 1950. McDougall, Heavens and Earth, pp. 89-91, 99; ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 60-63.

98 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 11, 83; "Air Defense by Missile Master," Army 6 (Apr 1956): 18-19; Public Affairs Office, Hq, U.S. Army Communications Command, "A History of the Signal Corps, 1860-1975," p. 14; Marshall, "Modern Signal Research," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 195.

99 Anon., "Signal Corps: Communications, Combat Surveillance, Avionics Spell Command Control," United States Army Aviation Digest (hereafter cited as Aviation Digest) 7 (Jun 1961): 30-32.

100 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 12-16, 39-40.

101 U.S. Army Aviation Flight Information Office, "The Army's Flight Information Program," Aviation Digest 8 (Apr 1962): 41-42; Richard Albright, "Flight Information and Navaids Office," Aviation Digest 10 (Jul 1964): 18-20; ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 15, 41, 80; Larew, Meteorology in Signal Corps, p. 65.

102 Larew, Meteorology in Signal Corps, p. 63; Bates and Fuller, Weather Warriors, pp. 163, 171.

103 Anthony D. Kurtz, "School for Military Meteorologists," Army Information Digest 15 (Dec 1960): 40-45; Phillips, Signal Center and School, pp. 231, 236; Marshall, "Modern Signal Research," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 193; Larew, Meteorology in Signal Corps, p. 66; Bates and Fuller, Weather Warriors, p. 171; Smith, Fort Huachuca, p. 320.

104 Larew, Meteorology in Signal Corps, pp. 66-67.

105 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 16-20, 41; Larew, Meteorology in Signal Corps, p. 68-70; Marshall, "Modern Signal Research," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 193.

106 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, p. 17; Marshall, "Modern Signal Research," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 196; Larew, Meteorology in Signal Corps, pp. 69-70; J. Tuzo Wilson, Year of the New Moons; Smith, "Pioneering in IGY Research"; Leonard S. Wilson, "Army Role in IGY Research"; John T. Lorenz, "Far Northern Research Outpost," Army Information Digest 13 (May 1958): 24-29.

107 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. vii, 52-56.

108 Ibid., p. 127.

109 Anon., "New Cable Link to Alaska," Army Information Digest 12 (Mar 1957): 40-41.

110 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 64-65; U.S. Army, Alaska, Army's Role in Building Alaska, pp. 109-13; Headquarters, U.S. Army, Alaska, GO 224, 9 Nov 1965, copy in unit jacket, 33d Signal Battalion, DAMH-HSO.

111 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 64-65; Mitchell, Opening of Alaska, p. x. RCA later sold the network and, as of 1990, Alaskan communications were being provided by Alascom, Incorporated.

112 ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, pp. 95-101; Bilby, The General, p. 166.

113 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 91-94; Joseph H. Kanner and Richard P. Runyon, "Training by TV," Army 6 (May 1956): 25-26; Joseph H. Kanner, "Teaching Through TV," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, pp. 231-34; Phillips, Signal Center and School, pp. 243-46.

114 ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, p. 24; Koszarski, Astoria and Its Fabulous Films, p. 116; Stuart Queen, "`The Big Picture,"' Army Information Digest 10 (Feb 1955): 34-38; Alex McNeil, Total Television: A Comprehensive Guide to Programming from 1948 to 1980 (New York: Penguin, 1980), p. 90.

115 McDougall, Heavens and Earth, pp. 55, 105-06.

116 John B. Wilson, Divisions and Separate Brigades, draft Ms, pp. 10:15 to 10:42; Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 584; Weigley, History of Army, p. 537. The 7th Signal Company became, for example, the 127th Signal Battalion.

117 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, p. 31; G. D. Gray, "Getting the Message Through," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, pp. 215-18.

118 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 7, 32; Earle F. Cook, "U.S. Army Objectives in Field Communications," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 257; Anon., "Super-Speed Teletypewriter," Army Information Digest 13 (Sep 1958): 65.

119 Strength figure from Weigley, History of Army, p. 600.

120 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 46-49; Phillips, Signal Center and School, pp. 223-40.

121 Louis Nizer, The Implosion Conspiracy (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1973), pp. 23, 227.

122 Thomas C. Reeves, The Life and Times of Joe McCarthy: A Biography (New York: Stein and Day, 1982), pp. 513-25. The hearings are briefly mentioned in ARSO, quadrennial report 1951-1955, p. 115. Chief Signal Officer Back attended the hearings, but he was not called upon to testify. Although the FBI has never been able to prove its existence, there may indeed have been a spy ring at Fort Monmouth. Following Rosenberg's arrest, two of his coworkers, Joel Barr and Al Sarant, fled the country. Using their technical knowledge, they subsequently worked on defense-related projects for the Soviet Union, among them the development of a radar-controlled antiaircraft gun. Eventually they set up a microelectronics laboratory in Leningrad. The 15 June 1992 broadcast of ABC News, "Nightline," was devoted to the careers of Barr and Sarant.

123 Reeves, Life and Times ofMcCarthy, pp. 548-50, 567-68.

124 Ibid., chs. 22, 23, and 24; Richard Gid Powers, Secrecy and Power: The Life of J. Edgar Hoover (New York: Free Press, 1987), pp. 322-23.

125 ARSO, quadrennial report 1955-1959, pp. 133-34. During Lyndon Johnson's administration O'Connell served as special assistant to the president for telecommunications. See also O'Connell's biographical file in DAMH-HSR and his entries in Cullum, Biographical Register. O'Cormell was West Point graduate number 6898.

126 "Nelson, Ralph T.," biographical files, DAMH-HSR. See also Cullum, Biographical Register. Nelson was West Point graduate number 8462.

127 Paul J. Scheips, The Signal Corps Centennial of 1960, typescript [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Signal Historical Office, 1961], copy in CMH files. The strength percentage is from the appendix thereto, "100 Years of Signal Corps Manpower, Education and Training." Bergen, Test for Technology, p. 171, indicates that it was the third largest branch in 1960.

128 Hewes, Root to McNamara, pp. 253-58.

129 Ibid., p. 311; John W. Nolan, "The Defense Communications System: Bringing Defense and Readiness Together," Army Communicator 1 (Spring 1976): 45-48.

130 Wallace M. Lauterbach, "STRATCOM-The Army's Global Communications," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 209.

131 AR 10-5, 5 May 1961.

132 Hewes, Root to McNamara, chs. 8-10 and chart 31; DAGO 8, 15 Feb 1962.

133 Hewes, Root to McNamara, ch. 10; Bergen, Test for Technology, pp. 171-73; Phillips, Signal Center and School, pp. 313-18; Concise History of Fort Monmouth, pp. 44-47.

134 Hewes, Root to McNamara, p. 350.

135 Quoted in Bergen, Test for Technology, pp. 174-75. Upon his retirement from the Army, General Cook, who had directed the Signal Corps' participation in Project SCORE, joined the Washington staff of the Radio Engineering Laboratories, a private firm. On Cook's career, see his obituary, "Retired Chief Signal Officer Earle F. Cook Dies at 81," Washington Post, 21 Feb 89, copy in author's files; "Cook, Earle F.," biographical files, DAMH-HSR.

136 The change in designation was made effective by DAGO 6, 28 Feb 1964. See Bergen, Test for Technology, p. 175; Hewes, Root to McNamara, p. 364; Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 605.

137 The command headquarters moved to Fort Huachuca, Arizona, in 1967.

138 David Parker Gibbs, "The Army's New Communications-Electronics Organization," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, pp. 201-07; David P. Gibbs, "C-E Strives for Faster Responses," Army 15 (Nov 1964): 87-88, 160. The Army Pictorial Center was discontinued as an Army installation effective 6 October 1972, per DAGO 4, 30 January 1973. It is now the home of the American Museum of the Moving Image.

139 Gibbs, "New Organization," in Marshall, ed., Story of Signal Corps, p. 207.

140 The Regular Army divisions had completed their reorganizations under ROAD by 30 June 1964. John B. Wilson, Divisions and Separate Brigades, draft Ms, pp. 10:42 to 10:66; Matloff, ed., American Military History, p. 607; Weigley, History of Army, pp. 540-42. See TOE 11-35E (15 Jul 1963), 11-205T (22 Jun 1965), and 11-35G (31 Mar 1966).

141 Bergen, Test for Technology, p. 38.

142 Matloff, ed., American Military History, pp. 592-96.

143 Office of the Chief Signal Officer, The Signal Corps Role in the Cuban Crisis, 1962, unpublished manuscript, CMH; Bergen, Test for Technology, p. 174.

144 Smith, Fort Huachuca, p. 327.

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